[Architecture] LiteLLM完全ガイド：100以上のLLMを統合サービングする方法

litellm.completion()
  |
  +-- model="gpt-4o"           --> OpenAI API
  +-- model="claude-sonnet-4-20250514"  --> Anthropic API
  +-- model="azure/gpt-4o"     --> Azure OpenAI
  +-- model="bedrock/claude-3" --> AWS Bedrock
  +-- model="vertex_ai/gemini" --> Google Vertex AI
  +-- model="ollama/llama3"    --> Local Ollama

Any OpenAI Client --> LiteLLM Proxy --> Multiple LLM Providers
                      (Rate Limiting, Cost Tracking, Load Balancing)

Commercial Providers:
  - OpenAI (GPT-4o, GPT-4o-mini, o1, o3等)
  - Anthropic (Claude Sonnet, Claude Haiku, Claude Opus)
  - Azure OpenAI
  - AWS Bedrock (Claude, Titan, Llama)
  - Google Vertex AI (Gemini)
  - Google AI Studio
  - Cohere (Command R+)
  - Mistral AI
  - Together AI
  - Groq
  - Fireworks AI
  - Perplexity
  - DeepSeek

Self-Hosted / Local:
  - Ollama
  - vLLM
  - Hugging Face TGI
  - NVIDIA NIM
  - OpenAI互換エンドポイント

pip install litellm

import litellm

# OpenAI
response = litellm.completion(
    model="gpt-4o",
    messages=[
        {"role": "system", "content": "You are a helpful assistant."},
        {"role": "user", "content": "What is Kubernetes?"},
    ],
    temperature=0.7,
    max_tokens=1000,
)
print(response.choices[0].message.content)

# Anthropic Claude
response = litellm.completion(
    model="claude-sonnet-4-20250514",
    messages=[
        {"role": "user", "content": "Explain microservices architecture."},
    ],
    max_tokens=1000,
)
print(response.choices[0].message.content)

# Azure OpenAI
response = litellm.completion(
    model="azure/gpt-4o-deployment",
    messages=[
        {"role": "user", "content": "Hello!"},
    ],
    api_base="https://my-resource.openai.azure.com",
    api_version="2024-02-15-preview",
    api_key="your-azure-key",
)

# AWS Bedrock
response = litellm.completion(
    model="bedrock/anthropic.claude-3-sonnet-20240229-v1:0",
    messages=[
        {"role": "user", "content": "Summarize this text."},
    ],
)

# Ollama（ローカル）
response = litellm.completion(
    model="ollama/llama3",
    messages=[
        {"role": "user", "content": "Write a Python function."},
    ],
    api_base="http://localhost:11434",
)

import litellm

# 同期ストリーミング
response = litellm.completion(
    model="gpt-4o",
    messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "Write a long essay."}],
    stream=True,
)

for chunk in response:
    content = chunk.choices[0].delta.content
    if content:
        print(content, end="", flush=True)

import asyncio
import litellm

async def main():
    # 単一非同期呼び出し
    response = await litellm.acompletion(
        model="gpt-4o",
        messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "Hello!"}],
    )
    print(response.choices[0].message.content)

    # 非同期ストリーミング
    response = await litellm.acompletion(
        model="claude-sonnet-4-20250514",
        messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "Explain Docker."}],
        stream=True,
    )
    async for chunk in response:
        content = chunk.choices[0].delta.content
        if content:
            print(content, end="", flush=True)

    # 並列呼び出し
    tasks = [
        litellm.acompletion(
            model="gpt-4o-mini",
            messages=[{"role": "user", "content": f"Question {i}"}],
        )
        for i in range(5)
    ]
    responses = await asyncio.gather(*tasks)
    for resp in responses:
        print(resp.choices[0].message.content[:50])

asyncio.run(main())

import litellm
import json

tools = [
    {
        "type": "function",
        "function": {
            "name": "get_weather",
            "description": "Get the current weather for a location",
            "parameters": {
                "type": "object",
                "properties": {
                    "location": {
                        "type": "string",
                        "description": "City name",
                    },
                    "unit": {
                        "type": "string",
                        "enum": ["celsius", "fahrenheit"],
                    },
                },
                "required": ["location"],
            },
        },
    }
]

# OpenAIとClaude両方同じインターフェース
for model in ["gpt-4o", "claude-sonnet-4-20250514"]:
    response = litellm.completion(
        model=model,
        messages=[
            {"role": "user", "content": "What's the weather in Seoul?"}
        ],
        tools=tools,
        tool_choice="auto",
    )

    if response.choices[0].message.tool_calls:
        tool_call = response.choices[0].message.tool_calls[0]
        print(f"Model: {model}")
        print(f"Function: {tool_call.function.name}")
        print(f"Arguments: {tool_call.function.arguments}")

import litellm

# OpenAI Embedding
response = litellm.embedding(
    model="text-embedding-3-small",
    input=["Hello world", "How are you?"],
)
print(f"Embedding dimension: {len(response.data[0]['embedding'])}")

# Cohere Embedding
response = litellm.embedding(
    model="cohere/embed-english-v3.0",
    input=["Search query text"],
    input_type="search_query",
)

# Bedrock Embedding
response = litellm.embedding(
    model="bedrock/amazon.titan-embed-text-v2:0",
    input=["Document text for embedding"],
)

import litellm

# GPT-4o Vision
response = litellm.completion(
    model="gpt-4o",
    messages=[
        {
            "role": "user",
            "content": [
                {"type": "text", "text": "What is in this image?"},
                {
                    "type": "image_url",
                    "image_url": {
                        "url": "https://example.com/image.png",
                    },
                },
            ],
        }
    ],
)

# Claude Vision
response = litellm.completion(
    model="claude-sonnet-4-20250514",
    messages=[
        {
            "role": "user",
            "content": [
                {"type": "text", "text": "Describe this architecture diagram."},
                {
                    "type": "image_url",
                    "image_url": {
                        "url": "data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgo...",
                    },
                },
            ],
        }
    ],
)

+-------------------+
| Your Application  |
| (OpenAI SDK)      |
+--------+----------+
         |
         v
+--------+----------+
| LiteLLM Proxy     |
| - Rate Limiting   |
| - Cost Tracking   |
| - Load Balancing  |
| - Fallback        |
| - Key Management  |
+--------+----------+
         |
    +----+----+----+----+
    |    |    |    |    |
    v    v    v    v    v
  OpenAI Azure Anthropic Bedrock Ollama

# pipインストール
pip install 'litellm[proxy]'

# 基本実行
litellm --model gpt-4o --port 4000

# 設定ファイルで実行
litellm --config config.yaml --port 4000

# Docker実行
docker run -d \
  --name litellm-proxy \
  -p 4000:4000 \
  -v ./config.yaml:/app/config.yaml \
  -e OPENAI_API_KEY=sk-xxx \
  -e ANTHROPIC_API_KEY=sk-ant-xxx \
  ghcr.io/berriai/litellm:main-latest \
  --config /app/config.yaml

# config.yaml
model_list:
  # OpenAIモデル
  - model_name: gpt-4o
    litellm_params:
      model: openai/gpt-4o
      api_key: os.environ/OPENAI_API_KEY
      rpm: 500 # Rate limit: requests per minute
      tpm: 100000 # Rate limit: tokens per minute

  # Claudeモデル（複数デプロイメントでロードバランシング）
  - model_name: claude-sonnet
    litellm_params:
      model: anthropic/claude-sonnet-4-20250514
      api_key: os.environ/ANTHROPIC_API_KEY
      rpm: 200
      tpm: 80000

  # Azure OpenAI
  - model_name: gpt-4o
    litellm_params:
      model: azure/gpt-4o-deployment
      api_base: https://my-resource.openai.azure.com
      api_version: '2024-02-15-preview'
      api_key: os.environ/AZURE_API_KEY
      rpm: 300

  # AWS Bedrock Claude
  - model_name: bedrock-claude
    litellm_params:
      model: bedrock/anthropic.claude-3-sonnet-20240229-v1:0
      aws_access_key_id: os.environ/AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID
      aws_secret_access_key: os.environ/AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY
      aws_region_name: us-east-1

  # ローカルOllama
  - model_name: local-llama
    litellm_params:
      model: ollama/llama3
      api_base: http://ollama:11434

# ルーター設定
router_settings:
  routing_strategy: 'latency-based-routing'
  num_retries: 3
  timeout: 60
  allowed_fails: 2
  cooldown_time: 30

# 一般設定
general_settings:
  master_key: sk-master-key-1234
  database_url: os.environ/DATABASE_URL
  store_model_in_db: true

litellm_settings:
  drop_params: true
  set_verbose: false
  cache: true
  cache_params:
    type: redis
    host: redis
    port: 6379

# 同じmodel_nameで複数のデプロイメントを登録すると自動ロードバランシング
model_list:
  # gpt-4oグループ: 3つのデプロイメント
  - model_name: gpt-4o
    litellm_params:
      model: openai/gpt-4o
      api_key: os.environ/OPENAI_API_KEY_1
  - model_name: gpt-4o
    litellm_params:
      model: azure/gpt-4o-east
      api_base: https://east.openai.azure.com
      api_key: os.environ/AZURE_KEY_EAST
  - model_name: gpt-4o
    litellm_params:
      model: azure/gpt-4o-west
      api_base: https://west.openai.azure.com
      api_key: os.environ/AZURE_KEY_WEST

router_settings:
  # ルーティング戦略
  routing_strategy: 'latency-based-routing'
  # オプション:
  #   simple-shuffle: ランダム選択
  #   least-busy: 最も少ない進行中リクエスト
  #   usage-based-routing: TPM/RPM使用量ベース
  #   latency-based-routing: レスポンスタイムベース（推奨）

model_list:
  - model_name: primary-model
    litellm_params:
      model: openai/gpt-4o
      api_key: os.environ/OPENAI_API_KEY

  - model_name: fallback-model
    litellm_params:
      model: anthropic/claude-sonnet-4-20250514
      api_key: os.environ/ANTHROPIC_API_KEY

router_settings:
  num_retries: 2
  timeout: 30
  fallbacks: [{ 'primary-model': ['fallback-model'] }]
  # 特定エラーのみfallback
  retry_policy:
    RateLimitError: 3 # 429エラー時3回リトライ
    ContentPolicyViolationError: 0 # コンテンツポリシー違反はリトライなし
    AuthenticationError: 0 # 認証エラーはリトライなし

# マスターキーで仮想キー生成
curl -X POST http://localhost:4000/key/generate \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234" \
  -H "Content-Type: application/json" \
  -d '{
    "models": ["gpt-4o", "claude-sonnet"],
    "max_budget": 100.0,
    "budget_duration": "monthly",
    "metadata": {
      "team": "backend",
      "user": "developer-1"
    },
    "tpm_limit": 50000,
    "rpm_limit": 100
  }'

{
  "key": "sk-generated-key-abc123",
  "expires": "2026-04-20T00:00:00Z",
  "max_budget": 100.0,
  "models": ["gpt-4o", "claude-sonnet"]
}

# 生成されたキーでAPI呼び出し
from openai import OpenAI

client = OpenAI(
    api_key="sk-generated-key-abc123",
    base_url="http://localhost:4000",
)

response = client.chat.completions.create(
    model="gpt-4o",
    messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "Hello!"}],
)

# config.yamlでRate Limiting
model_list:
  - model_name: gpt-4o
    litellm_params:
      model: openai/gpt-4o
      api_key: os.environ/OPENAI_API_KEY
      rpm: 500 # モデルデプロイメントレベルRPM
      tpm: 100000 # モデルデプロイメントレベルTPM

general_settings:
  master_key: sk-master-key-1234
  database_url: os.environ/DATABASE_URL

# キー別Rate Limiting設定
curl -X POST http://localhost:4000/key/generate \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234" \
  -H "Content-Type: application/json" \
  -d '{
    "rpm_limit": 50,
    "tpm_limit": 20000,
    "max_budget": 10.0,
    "budget_duration": "daily"
  }'

# チーム別Rate Limiting
curl -X POST http://localhost:4000/team/new \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234" \
  -H "Content-Type: application/json" \
  -d '{
    "team_alias": "backend-team",
    "rpm_limit": 200,
    "tpm_limit": 80000,
    "max_budget": 500.0,
    "budget_duration": "monthly"
  }'

# ユーザー別予算設定
curl -X POST http://localhost:4000/user/new \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234" \
  -H "Content-Type: application/json" \
  -d '{
    "user_id": "user-123",
    "max_budget": 50.0,
    "budget_duration": "monthly",
    "models": ["gpt-4o-mini", "claude-sonnet"]
  }'

# 予算使用状況確認
curl http://localhost:4000/user/info?user_id=user-123 \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234"

# config.yaml
litellm_settings:
  cache: true
  cache_params:
    type: redis
    host: redis
    port: 6379
    ttl: 3600 # 1時間キャッシュ

# クライアントからキャッシュ制御
from openai import OpenAI

client = OpenAI(
    api_key="sk-key",
    base_url="http://localhost:4000",
)

# キャッシュ使用（デフォルト）
response = client.chat.completions.create(
    model="gpt-4o",
    messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "What is Python?"}],
)

# キャッシュスキップ
response = client.chat.completions.create(
    model="gpt-4o",
    messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "What is Python?"}],
    extra_body={"cache": {"no-cache": True}},
)

import litellm

response = litellm.completion(
    model="gpt-4o",
    messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "Hello!"}],
)

# コスト情報
print(f"Input tokens: {response.usage.prompt_tokens}")
print(f"Output tokens: {response.usage.completion_tokens}")

# litellmのコスト計算
from litellm import completion_cost

cost = completion_cost(completion_response=response)
print(f"Cost: ${cost:.6f}")

# 全体コスト照会
curl http://localhost:4000/global/spend \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234"

# キー別コスト照会
curl "http://localhost:4000/global/spend?api_key=sk-key-abc" \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234"

# モデル別コスト照会
curl "http://localhost:4000/global/spend?model=gpt-4o" \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234"

# チーム別コスト照会
curl "http://localhost:4000/team/info?team_id=team-backend" \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234"

# 期間別コスト照会
curl "http://localhost:4000/global/spend/logs?start_date=2026-03-01&end_date=2026-03-20" \
  -H "Authorization: Bearer sk-master-key-1234"

# config.yaml
general_settings:
  alerting:
    - slack
  alerting_threshold: 300
  alert_types:
    - budget_alerts # 予算超過時
    - spend_reports # 週間/月間コストレポート
    - failed_tracking # 失敗したリクエスト追跡

environment_variables:
  SLACK_WEBHOOK_URL: os.environ/SLACK_WEBHOOK_URL

# docker-compose.yml
version: '3.8'

services:
  litellm:
    image: ghcr.io/berriai/litellm:main-latest
    container_name: litellm-proxy
    ports:
      - '4000:4000'
    volumes:
      - ./config.yaml:/app/config.yaml
    environment:
      - OPENAI_API_KEY=sk-xxx
      - ANTHROPIC_API_KEY=sk-ant-xxx
      - AZURE_API_KEY=xxx
      - AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID=xxx
      - AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY=xxx
      - DATABASE_URL=postgresql://litellm:password@postgres:5432/litellm
      - REDIS_HOST=redis
      - REDIS_PORT=6379
    command: --config /app/config.yaml --port 4000
    depends_on:
      postgres:
        condition: service_healthy
      redis:
        condition: service_started
    healthcheck:
      test: ['CMD', 'curl', '-f', 'http://localhost:4000/health']
      interval: 30s
      timeout: 10s
      retries: 3

  postgres:
    image: postgres:16-alpine
    container_name: litellm-postgres
    environment:
      POSTGRES_DB: litellm
      POSTGRES_USER: litellm
      POSTGRES_PASSWORD: password
    volumes:
      - postgres_data:/var/lib/postgresql/data
    healthcheck:
      test: ['CMD-SHELL', 'pg_isready -U litellm']
      interval: 5s
      timeout: 5s
      retries: 5

  redis:
    image: redis:7-alpine
    container_name: litellm-redis
    ports:
      - '6379:6379'
    volumes:
      - redis_data:/data

volumes:
  postgres_data:
  redis_data:

# Helmリポジトリ追加
helm repo add litellm https://berriai.github.io/litellm/
helm repo update

# インストール
helm install litellm litellm/litellm-helm \
  --namespace litellm \
  --create-namespace \
  --values values.yaml

# values.yaml
replicaCount: 3

image:
  repository: ghcr.io/berriai/litellm
  tag: main-latest

service:
  type: ClusterIP
  port: 4000

ingress:
  enabled: true
  className: nginx
  hosts:
    - host: litellm.internal.company.com
      paths:
        - path: /
          pathType: Prefix

resources:
  requests:
    cpu: 500m
    memory: 512Mi
  limits:
    cpu: 2000m
    memory: 2Gi

env:
  - name: OPENAI_API_KEY
    valueFrom:
      secretKeyRef:
        name: litellm-secrets
        key: openai-api-key
  - name: ANTHROPIC_API_KEY
    valueFrom:
      secretKeyRef:
        name: litellm-secrets
        key: anthropic-api-key
  - name: DATABASE_URL
    valueFrom:
      secretKeyRef:
        name: litellm-secrets
        key: database-url

postgresql:
  enabled: true
  auth:
    database: litellm
    username: litellm

redis:
  enabled: true

# Health Check
curl http://localhost:4000/health

# Prometheus Metrics
curl http://localhost:4000/metrics

litellm_requests_total: 全体リクエスト数
litellm_request_duration_seconds: リクエスト処理時間
litellm_tokens_total: 全体トークン使用量
litellm_spend_total: 全体コスト
litellm_errors_total: エラー数
litellm_cache_hits_total: キャッシュヒット数

# config.yaml - 外部ロギングサービス連携
litellm_settings:
  success_callback: ['langfuse']
  failure_callback: ['langfuse']

environment_variables:
  LANGFUSE_PUBLIC_KEY: os.environ/LANGFUSE_PUBLIC_KEY
  LANGFUSE_SECRET_KEY: os.environ/LANGFUSE_SECRET_KEY
  LANGFUSE_HOST: https://cloud.langfuse.com

# Custom Callbackの例
import litellm

def my_custom_callback(kwargs, completion_response, start_time, end_time):
    model = kwargs.get("model")
    messages = kwargs.get("messages")
    cost = completion_cost(completion_response=completion_response)

    log_to_database(
        model=model,
        cost=cost,
        latency=(end_time - start_time).total_seconds(),
        tokens=completion_response.usage.total_tokens,
    )

litellm.success_callback = [my_custom_callback]

+------------------+
| Frontend App     |----+
+------------------+    |
                        |     +----------------+
+------------------+    +---->|                |     +----------+
| Backend Service  |----+     | LiteLLM Proxy  |---->| OpenAI   |
+------------------+    |     |                |     +----------+
                        |     | - Auth         |
+------------------+    |     | - Rate Limit   |     +----------+
| Data Pipeline    |----+     | - Cost Track   |---->| Anthropic|
+------------------+    |     | - Audit Log    |     +----------+
                        |     |                |
+------------------+    |     +--------+-------+     +----------+
| Internal Tools   |----+              |             | Azure    |
+------------------+                   v             +----------+
                              +--------+-------+
                              | PostgreSQL     |
                              | (spend logs)   |
                              +----------------+

from openai import OpenAI
import random

client = OpenAI(
    api_key="sk-proxy-key",
    base_url="http://litellm-proxy:4000",
)

def get_completion_with_ab_test(prompt: str, test_name: str):
    # 50/50 A/Bテスト
    model = random.choice(["gpt-4o", "claude-sonnet"])

    response = client.chat.completions.create(
        model=model,
        messages=[{"role": "user", "content": prompt}],
        extra_body={
            "metadata": {
                "test_name": test_name,
                "variant": model,
            }
        },
    )

    return {
        "model": model,
        "content": response.choices[0].message.content,
        "tokens": response.usage.total_tokens,
    }

def smart_route(prompt: str, complexity: str = "auto"):
    """複雑度に応じて適切なモデルを選択"""

    if complexity == "auto":
        word_count = len(prompt.split())
        if word_count < 50:
            complexity = "simple"
        elif any(kw in prompt.lower() for kw in
                 ["analyze", "compare", "complex", "detailed"]):
            complexity = "complex"
        else:
            complexity = "medium"

    model_map = {
        "simple": "gpt-4o-mini",      # 安価なモデル
        "medium": "claude-sonnet",      # 中間パフォーマンス/価格
        "complex": "gpt-4o",           # 高性能モデル
    }

    model = model_map[complexity]

    response = client.chat.completions.create(
        model=model,
        messages=[{"role": "user", "content": prompt}],
    )

    return response

# config.yaml - 複数Provider Failover
model_list:
  # Primary: OpenAI
  - model_name: main-model
    litellm_params:
      model: openai/gpt-4o
      api_key: os.environ/OPENAI_API_KEY

  # Secondary: Azure OpenAI（別リージョン）
  - model_name: main-model-fallback-1
    litellm_params:
      model: azure/gpt-4o
      api_base: https://eastus.openai.azure.com
      api_key: os.environ/AZURE_KEY

  # Tertiary: Anthropic Claude
  - model_name: main-model-fallback-2
    litellm_params:
      model: anthropic/claude-sonnet-4-20250514
      api_key: os.environ/ANTHROPIC_API_KEY

router_settings:
  fallbacks: [{ 'main-model': ['main-model-fallback-1', 'main-model-fallback-2'] }]
  num_retries: 2
  timeout: 30
  allowed_fails: 3
  cooldown_time: 60 # 失敗したモデル60秒クールダウン

LiteLLMを選択すべきケース:
  - データプライバシーが重要（金融、医療、政府）
  - 自社インフラで運用する必要がある場合
  - コスト追跡とRate Limitingが必要な場合
  - 複数のProviderを既に使用している場合

LangChainを選択すべきケース:
  - RAG、Agent等の複雑なLLMパイプライン構築
  - プロンプトチェイニング、メモリ管理等が必要な場合
  - （LiteLLMとLangChainは併用可能）

OpenRouterを選択すべきケース:
  - 素早いプロトタイピング
  - インフラ管理を望まない場合
  - 単一APIキーですべてのモデルにアクセス

Portkeyを選択すべきケース:
  - エンタープライズレベルの管理UIが必要
  - ガードレール、A/Bテスト等の高度な機能が必要
  - マネージドサービスを好む場合

# .envファイル（絶対にGitにコミットしないでください）
OPENAI_API_KEY=sk-xxx
ANTHROPIC_API_KEY=sk-ant-xxx
AZURE_API_KEY=xxx
AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID=xxx
AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY=xxx
DATABASE_URL=postgresql://litellm:password@localhost:5432/litellm
LITELLM_MASTER_KEY=sk-master-key-change-me

# config.yaml
model_list:
  - model_name: fast
    litellm_params:
      model: gpt-4o-mini
      api_key: os.environ/OPENAI_API_KEY
  - model_name: smart
    litellm_params:
      model: gpt-4o
      api_key: os.environ/OPENAI_API_KEY
  - model_name: creative
    litellm_params:
      model: anthropic/claude-sonnet-4-20250514
      api_key: os.environ/ANTHROPIC_API_KEY

# 意味のある名前で呼び出し
response = client.chat.completions.create(
    model="fast",  # gpt-4o-mini
    messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "Quick question"}],
)

response = client.chat.completions.create(
    model="smart",  # gpt-4o
    messages=[{"role": "user", "content": "Complex analysis"}],
)

from openai import OpenAI, APIError, RateLimitError, APITimeoutError

client = OpenAI(
    api_key="sk-proxy-key",
    base_url="http://litellm-proxy:4000",
)

def safe_completion(messages, model="gpt-4o", max_retries=3):
    for attempt in range(max_retries):
        try:
            response = client.chat.completions.create(
                model=model,
                messages=messages,
                timeout=30,
            )
            return response
        except RateLimitError:
            import time
            wait = 2 ** attempt
            print(f"Rate limited, waiting {wait}s...")
            time.sleep(wait)
        except APITimeoutError:
            print(f"Timeout on attempt {attempt + 1}")
            if attempt == max_retries - 1:
                raise
        except APIError as e:
            print(f"API error: {e}")
            raise

    return None